It should be noted that the ReCiPe method does not include a depletion characterization factor for lithium and therefore the use of lithium has no MDP impact, which in turn results in an underestimated absolute MDP value in this study see Insights and implications.
Sensitivity analyses To establish the GWP impact for a given distance driven, the total production impact of the battery is divided by the total distance the battery covers during its operating life in the vehicle. Impact category: global warming potential GWP.
Abbreviations: g refers to gram, CO2 to carbon dioxide, MJ to mega joule, km to kilometer. Studies assessing the environmental performance of batteries can reach different conclusions all depending on the assumptions regarding battery cycle numbers or range; for our battery, a battery lifetime of cycles Majeau-Bettez et al. For example, relative to a powertrain efficiency of 0. Energy requirements met with highly carbon intensive electricity mix result in large GWP impacts figure 4.
The largest energy requirements in the production of the battery are found in the manufacture of battery cells, and thus a sensitivity analysis with respect to the electricity used in the production of the cells is performed. Abbreviations: kg refers to kilogram, CO2 to carbon dioxide. Discussion Result analysis and comparison with preceding studies The objective of the study is to provide a detailed life cycle inventory of an NCM traction battery and to report direct and indirect impacts of production for this battery.
Battery capacity measured in kWh is used as a representative functional unit for batteries, which allows a consistent comparison of the studies. Data from preceding Li-ion traction battery studies have been compiled and energy density of cell, direct energy requirements for cell manufacture in terms of MJ per kWh, GWP due to direct energy use in cell manufacture, and GWP of the entire battery table 3. Note that the focus is on the cell not the battery , as energy requirements are significantly higher in cell production than in battery assembly.
The reported energy required for manufacture of battery cells from preceding studies vary greatly, from 3. Notter et al made their own process-based energy estimations. Note that energy data reported in Zackrisson and colleagues and Majeau-Bettez and colleagues include battery assembly as well as cell manufacture. Dunn and colleagues b based their energy data on a quote for a dry room provided by dry room manufacturer SCS Systems and calculated energy required for formation cycling Dunn et al.
The process-level approach, used by Dunn and colleagues b and Notter and colleagues , has the advantage of being process specific and yields detailed results, but runs the risk of leaving out processes and the lack of access to primary data may lead to uncertain estimates.
The top-down approach, used by Bauer , Zackrisson and colleagues , and Majeau-Bettez and colleagues has the advantage of being complete with respect to inclusion of all relevant activities related to the producing industry, but data is often aggregated, which results in a lack of detail, and may include inhomogeneous products.
In our study, the system boundaries for the battery cell manufacture are well defined and products are homogenous produces only Li-ion battery cells , and thus we used a top-down approach to establish the energy usage.
The different approaches have resulted in two opposing understandings; we align with Bauer , Zackrisson and colleagues , and Majeau-Bettez and colleagues and find significantly higher energy requirements than Dunn and colleagues b , Notter and colleagues and the USEPA The environmental impacts of the cradle-to-gate analysis for the LBV are compared with results reported in preceding studies, but only limited comparison can be made with Bauer and Dunn and colleagues b as they report results for materials rather than components.
There will be a stronger emphasis on GWP than other impact categories, owing both to GWP being the only common impact category in the reviewed literature, and the fact that EVs, to a large extent, are being promoted precisely as an alternative to ICEVs in order to reduce GWP.
Despite the common data, the GWP impact of the positive electrode paste reported in our study is nearly one fifth of what Majeau-Bettez and colleagues found; their high impact is due to the binder used in their study. The total ODP obtained in their study is more than two orders of magnitude higher than ours and nearly all of their ODP impact is attributed to the binder material.
In contrast, we use polyvinyl fluoride as a proxy for polyvinylidene fluoride. Our study reports similar overall impact of the positive current collector as Majeau-Bettez and colleagues We obtain twice as high GWP impact for the positive electrode paste compared to Notter and colleagues , this is likely due to differences in the active materials.
Notter and colleagues estimated the weight of the positive current collector to be more than four times heavier than those in our battery, and consequently report GWP more than four times larger than our study.
Zackrisson and colleagues report the GWP impact of the cathode, made with water rather than NMP, to be similar to ours. Compared to our cathode, the USEPA reports twice as high impacts for their NCM cathode, likely explained by the higher share of cathode materials in their battery.
Majeau-Bettez and colleagues report GWP impacts of the negative electrode paste around four times larger than the paste in our battery, which is also likely to be due to the use of PTFE as a binder. Because our negative current collectors are heavier than those in Majeau-Bettez and colleagues there is higher overall impact. For the anode, with water as solvent, Zackrisson and colleagues find the GWP to be nearly seven times smaller than the anode in our battery.
A possible explanation is that only 4. The lack of access to industry data in the preceding studies is perhaps more evident for the packaging and the BMS components than the other battery components. The reported GWP due to packaging is three to nine times higher for our battery than the preceding studies.
For the BMS inventory, there is great variability in the literature. Dunn and colleagues b included glycol as a coolant fluid, but beyond this did not make an inventory for a cooling system.
It is deemed unlikely that lithium in the battery will be recycled as only selected materials, such as nickel and cobalt, are being recycled from Li-ion batteries Dewulf at al. At present, the recovery of lithium is not efficient due to the low lithium content in batteries and the present low prices for lithium ore Ziemann et al.
Grosjean and colleagues and Mohr and colleagues assessed the world lithium resources, and concluded that despite the technological breakthrough of EVs, the planet is in no danger of running out of lithium. In the study by Notter and colleagues , it was concluded that although lithium can be considered to be a geochemically scarce metal, assessment with abiotic depletion potential does not result in a high impact for the lithium components of their battery.
By using our findings as a guide, the battery industry can reduce the environmental footprint of traction batteries. GWP of the battery will be reduced if the energy requirements are decreased or met with less carbon intensive electricity.
For the studied NCM battery, the positive electrode paste and the negative current collector made of copper have particularly high environmental impacts and reuse of these components is desirable as adverse environmental effects can thereby be avoided.
The current battery technology has a limited functional lifetime; ideally, the batteries should last at least as long as the vehicles they drive. Extending the battery life may eliminate the necessity of replacement in the vehicle lifetime, making the achievable cycle number of the battery a crucial parameter.
To drive a distance of km total driving distance given for the Mercedes-Benz A , cycles will be demanded of the battery by a vehicle with powertrain efficiency of 0. This demonstrates that the number of cycles required from the battery by the vehicle is dependent on the powertrain efficiency of the vehicle.
In this way, the powertrain efficiency directly influences the usable lifetime of the battery in the vehicle figure 3. The production of the battery causes 4. This is close to the cradle-to-gate impact of a small personal vehicle such as the A , which emits 6.
Conclusion A high-resolution inventory for an NCM traction battery has been compiled. In addition, the environmental impacts associated with the production of the studied battery are assessed and analyzed table 2.
The most impact intensive production chains are the manufacture of the battery cells, the positive electrode paste, and the negative current collector figure 2. The sensitivity analysis of electricity used for manufacture of battery cells shows that the most effective approach to reduce GWP is to focus on reducing the energy demand in cell manufacture and the carbon intensity of the electricity used in production figure 4.
EV producers, in turn, may improve the battery lifetime by improving powertrain efficiency. With this work, original primary data is provided and by doing so some of the key gaps in the existing literature on EVs and particularly on traction batteries are filled.
Consequently, the study allows for better understanding of the environmental impacts pertaining to traction batteries and ultimately EVs, and permits the discussion of traction batteries to move forward with a greater empirical foundation. Lavela, J. Tirado, and A. On the electrochemical performance of anthracite-based graphite materials as anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Fuel 89 5 : — Daimler AG. Environmental certificate Mercedes-Benz A-class.
Stuttgart, Germany. Dewulf, J. Van der Vorst, K. Denturck, H. Van Langenhove, W. Ghyoot, J. Tytgat, and K. Recycling rechargeable lithium ion batteries: Critical analysis of natural resource savings. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 54 4 : — Dunn, J. Barnes, L. Gaines, J. Sullivan, and M. Material and energy flows in the materials production, assembly, and end-of-life stages of the automative lithium-ion battery life cycle.
Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries. Ecoinvent Centre. Ecoinvent data and reports v. Goedkoop, M. Heijungs, M. Huijbregts, A. De Schryver, J. Struijs, and R. Van Zelm. ReCiPe , A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. First edition Report I: Characterisation.
Grosjean, C. Miranda, M. Perrin, and P. Assessment of world lithium resources and consequences of their geographic distribution on the expected development of the electric vehicle industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 3 : — Hawkins, T. Singh, G. Majeau-Bettez, and A. Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional and electric vehicles. Journal of Industrial Ecology 00 0 : no—no. Hitachi Maxell Ltd. Annual report. Tokyo, Japan. Environmental report.
Preferably, the fiber net is one of a glass fiber net, a polyacrylonitrile fiber net, a polyester fiber net and a polypropylene fiber net. Preferably, the initiator and the polymer monomer are dispersed together in the organic solvent to form a mixed solution, and the mixed solution contains 0.
The thickness of the fiber web is preferably 0. Preferably, the polymer monomer is one of methyl methacrylate, styrene, acrylonitrile and 1, 3-dioxolane. Preferably, the organic solvent is 1, 2-dimethoxyethane or acetone. Preferably, the initiator is lithium bis fluorosulfonyl imide, the polymer monomer is 1, 3-dioxolane, and the organic solvent is 1, 2-dimethoxyethane.
The metal lithium cathode of the invention is mainly applied to lithium ion batteries or lithium sulfur batteries. The polymer monomer can be accurately positioned on the surface of the metal lithium by effectively utilizing the space among grids through the net material, the polymer monomer can form a compact protective layer on the surface of the metal lithium on the molecular level through the initiator, the polymer is directly coated on the surface of the metal lithium, a gap is generated between the polymer monomer and the metal lithium or other matrixes along with the volatilization of the solution in the drying process, and the protection of the metal lithium cathode by the monomer polymerization mode is particularly obvious.
The polymer monomer initiator is preferably lithium bis fluorosulfonyl imide, because this initiator is also an electrolyte salt commonly used in lithium ion batteries, and does not introduce new impurities into the battery system compared to other initiators.
The invention is further described below in conjunction with the drawings and the detailed description of the invention to enable those skilled in the art to better understand and implement the invention. The invention provides a preparation method of a novel metal lithium cathode, which comprises the following steps:. The present invention will be described in further detail with reference to specific examples.
And 3 conventional testing of battery performance: the LAND test system is adopted for testing, the charging and discharging voltage range is 3. And 3 conventional testing of battery performance: when the LAND test system is adopted for testing, the charging and discharging voltage range is 1. And 3 conventional testing of battery performance: and 3 testing by adopting a LAND test system, wherein the charging and discharging voltage interval is 1.
And 3 conventional testing of battery performance: and testing by adopting a LAND test system, wherein the charging and discharging voltage interval is 3. The addition of the polymer film in example 1 can make the cell test the retention rate of The retention rate of 49 percent after cycles is obviously higher than that of the comparative example and other examples due to the introduction of the polymer and the initiator in the example 5.
The above detailed description of the performance of the lithium ion secondary battery with reference to the embodiments is illustrative and not restrictive, and thus, variations and modifications may be made without departing from the general inventive concept within the scope of the present invention. A lithium metal anode comprising an inner protective structure and an outer protective structure, characterized in that: the inner layer protection structure is a fiber mesh, and the fiber mesh covers the surface of the lithium metal; the outer layer protection structure is formed by polymerization reaction of polymer monomers loaded on the surface of the fiber net under the action of an initiator.
The lithium metal anode of claim 1, wherein: the thickness of the fiber net is 0. The lithium metal anode of claim 1 or 2, wherein: the fiber net is a glass fiber net, a polyacrylonitrile fiber net, a polyester fiber net or a polypropylene fiber net.
The lithium metal anode of claim 1, wherein: the initiator is bis-fluorosulfonylimide lithium or azobisisobutyronitrile. The lithium metal anode of claim 1, wherein: the polymer monomer is methyl methacrylate, styrene, acrylonitrile or 1, 3-dioxolane. The lithium metal anode of claim 1 or 4, wherein: the weight of the initiator is 0. Google Scholar. Simone A. Kasemann ; Simone A. Josh B. Wimpenny Josh B.
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